The Arabian Peninsula Before and After Muhammad (Islam) – The years 1 ce until 800ce

Background Information

Jerusalem

The starting point for this review is Year 1 ce, Christian calendar.  Christ was born (6-4 bce).  Jerusalem was the spiritual and political center of Jewish life.  Roman occupied.  There were tensions. By 70 the Roman’s seized complete control of the area and destroyed the Temple. Hundreds of thousands died, the city razed, and Jews left to settle elsewhere (diaspora).

After Christ’s crucifixion (30-33 ce) Jewish followers continued observing Jewish laws while believing in the Messiah.  Churches were formed in homes and Christianity began to grow. Baptisms were in evidence. They were persecuted by Jews and Romans, gentiles converted.  Jewish laws were mitigated. After the Temple was destroyed the Christians dispersed to the East (Pella).  Jerusalem became pagan (Aelia Capitolina) until 324ce.  Christianity spread across the Roman Empire. 

Galilee, north of Jerusalem became more the center for Judiasm. Jerusalem remained in ruins. Plans to build a Roman temple on the Temple Mount were thwarted, briefly Jews returned, but soon were suppressed by Emperor Hadrian (Roman Emperor 117 – 138).  Jews were banned, yet there were those that remained. 

Christianity grew in the Roman Empire, while modest and overshadowed by pagan establishments. In 313 (Edict of Milan), however, Constantine converted and declared his faith in Christ, Christianity then favored, the state religion under Theodosisus (Roman Emperor) in the late 4th century.  Jerusalem was recognized and transformed into a major Christian center. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher was dedicated 335ce and other basilicas were constructed.  Constantine’s mother’s faith and influence brought attention to the holy sites.  Pilgrimages began and Christian religious leaders met debating what resulted in the future framework of dogma of Christianity. By the 6th century Jerusalem was largely Christian, as it was during the life of Muhammad. Tensions existed with what remained of Jewish and gentile (Samaritan, pagan and Jewish influenced) groups.  

Arabia

After the crucifixion the Jewish population migrated into the area south of Jerusalem, Arabia. Growth began after the Babylonian exile (597-539bc). By the first century (ce) Jews were established in the north (Hijaz – where Mecca and Media were) and south (Yemen), integrated with pagan Arab tribes, became farmers and merchants. They were communities around an oasis. They spoke Arabic, maintained their traditions (rabbinical), and were politically astute. There were three prominent tribes in Medina (Banu Qaynuqa, Nadir, Qurayza). 

In Yemen (south) after 300ce the Jewish population grew, becoming the state religion until the 6th century. Christians in the area were persecuted. 

Trade routes brought Christians into the Peninsula as well, mostly south.  They lived among the tribal polytheistic Arabs, but there were Jewish areas and a Persian influence (Zoroastrians) too. Missionaries from Syria came and contacts existed with the Roman/Byzantine Empire. 

There is little evidence of Christian communities in Medina (Yatrib) and other northern areas. It was overwhelmingly pagan, with scattered Jewish communities.

Christians settled more to the south (Yemen and Najran) and to the east, in border areas along the Persian Gulf, possibly the Oman area. They arrived via Ethiopia. Churches (referred to as Kaabas – shaped as cubes) and monasteries were built. Sects existed believing in Christ as only divine, and others as divine and human, with ongoing debate. The religion was evolving, moreso in the Roman Empire, but in Arabia too. Later in the 6th century the Persian influence grew in the Yemen location, making Christian rule temporary. 

By 600ce, during the life of Muhammad, Christians lived in the peripheries of Arabia, but not in the heartland (Mecca and Medina). 

The Roman Empire had fallen (476), invaded by migrants, Visigoths, Germanic tribes, Vikings, among other barbarians.  Churches and monasteries continued and preserved history. Byzantium (East) grew. Infrastructure collapse, and the land became more agrarian, more self-sufficient. The Sassanid Empire (Persia) grew as well. Both had effective militaries.

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Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula in the 0 ce to 600ce period was a vast, dry area, replete with deserts, oases, mountain ranges (Yemen area), and coastal areas west and east. There was no centralized government, no unified control with mostly Bedouin tribes and settled communities near oases and the south. Decentralized oversight was provided by sheiks, councils and alliances. Families, kins, dominated tribes, the honor code important, and marauding one another was frequent. Blood feuds were common. 

There were Roman, Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) influences, prior to the rise of Islam by 632 (the year of Muhammad’s death). Caravans traveled bringing goods, fertile areas were farmed, mostly dates, grains and fruits, with the Jewish communities most productive in farming, and incense was a major product, although in decline.  Fishing, pearl diving, and trade was on the eastern shore (the Bahrain region) dominated intermittently by Persians/Zoroastrians (believed in one God, Ahura Mazda, founded by the prophet Zarathushtra, seeing a cosmic struggle between good and evil) and Nestorian Christians (Jesus Christ was seen as two distinct persons—a divine Son and a human Jesus—united).   

The language was Arabic. Pagan tribes lived among Jewish communities, especially in the area of Medina (Yatrib). The Bedouins were nomadic, camels their major transport. The Quraysh was the major tribe in Mecca.  There was little written word, with history related verbally, most in poetic form.  Trade fairs were hosted by the Quraysh, a time of peace when the visiting tribes came to trade and honor their gods (at the Kaaba housing 360 idols), to be worshipped by choice.  In some cases a tribe had multiple gods.  Hubel (moon god) was the leading candidate as god, some claiming Hubel was Allah. 

There was a very strong Jewish influence in Medina and south (Yemen). Christianity was spreading but not as dominant, with Nestorians and Monophysites (Christ having only one nature, both divine and human, not separate) in the southwest. 

The ancient Arab Nabatean kingdom, based in Petra, controlled trade routes in the early years, taken over by the Romans in the second century. 

There was a group, Hanifs, pre-Islamic, that believed in one god, and were neither Christian nor Jew; they were monotheists, rejecting polytheists and idols, with Abrahamic roots (Ishmael), emphasized righteous living, were pious and submitted to god.  Not an organized religion.  Muhammad’s cousin Waraqah ibn Nawfal, was a Hanif.

With no central government in the area there was a power vacuum.  No centralized belief.  In the beginning of the 7th century (after 612ce) Muhammad emerged as a unifier.  

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Muhammad/Arabs/Islam

Muhammad was born (570ce) in an age when Christianity was growing in the Middle East. There was a city south of Mecca, Najran, that was once Christian with hundreds of thousands of residents. A massacre took place by the Jewish Himyarite King Dhu Nuwas, from Yemen, around 523-525ce, several decades before Muhammad’s birth.  There were remnants of Christians remaining. Jerusalem had become mostly Christian.  There were also pockets of Jewish populations. Many would still travel to Najran, conduct a pilgrimage, to learn more about the Christians. Most pilgrimages by Christians were to Jerusalem. There is no record that Muhammad ever visited Najran, but certainly during his time as a caravan leader, it is my suspician, he traveled through Jerusalem. His travels did include Syria, exposing him to bible stories and Christian monks.

The Arabs were tribal and worshipped many gods, a  sense that there was something greater than man that ruled the universe.  It was 550 years after the death of Jesus Christ, the Bible was known, yet copies of the books, old and new testament, were rare. History was related orally. Texts that might be available were hand written. Where the faithful did not dwell the culture would be considered paganistic. 

Muhammad, through his first wife, Khadijah, had a cousin, Waraqah (Waraqah bin Nawfal), a Bible scholar, having himself translated the old testament into Arabic. He was a Hanfi.  But Muhammad was illiterate.  His home was Mecca.  He travelled as a trader extensively from Damascus to Mecca through areas rich in biblical history.  He heard stories. He passed by and saw architectural remnants.  His family maintained a structure in Mecca, called the Kaaba, that housed hundreds of idols to accommodate the many tribal deities who would visit annually for a bazaar to trade goods, and conduct commerce in peace. The Kaaba (meaning ‘cube’) was located where a meteoric rock landed and Abraham, so the story goes, brought his maidservant, Hagar, and bastard child, Ishmael, to live. Some say he was banished there near the well of ZamZam.  Abraham then returned to Jerusalem to live with his wife Sarah and legitimate son, Isaac.  

The tribal Arabs coming to Mecca would visit with their idol or idols, possibly praying, in the Kaaba. But the atmosphere during these times was not spiritual, more materialistic, degenerate, as a boisterous party with drink, food and disreputable women (and men). It was a time when the tribes gathered peacefully, in agreement that they would not do battle, regardless of feelings one toward another.  They would have their booth and trade and party. Two weeks or a month of cooperation, after which they would return to their home bases.  This bazaar was very profitable for Muhammad’s father’s clan.

It was a man’s world and tribes would often raid others to gain territory or add to their wealth, in some cases driven by a need for a new area to live, water being scarce, or riches depleted.  Women were treated poorly. Disagreements often settled in death, so too when caught stealing or committing other crimes an example would be made of the perpetrator from dismemberment to death by sword or hanging.  Beheadings were not uncommon. Family or the tribe was important and membership symbolized in some fashion.  Out of loyalty few left their tribes or family, with consequences resulting for those so inclined.  This was not out of the norm for the Jewish or Christian communities at the time either.  You might say life was more barbaric than calm.  Compared to modern cultures today it would be backward thinking. 

Muhammad having learned about god, was intrigued and captivated, seeing merit as a man of faith.  He became and considered himself a religious person, yet confused and wanting more.  He believed there could only be one god, and began a crusade of his own to establish that fact among his family and community. He gave up his position as a caravan leader and dedicated himself to being a believer, at the same time wanting to understand more as to his belief. He turned to Waraqah to learn more. 

One thing he did learn was that Ishmael was Arab as was his mother.  The bible said that through him, as God promised, a great nation of its own would arise.  Muhammad associated himself with Ishmael.  And that great nation was different from the one Abraham’s son Isaac propagated.  It was difficult for him to comprehend the idea of the Father, Son and Holy spirit.  That may be because Waraqah was an Old Testament Scholar and not a New Testament Scholar, or that the self-proclaimed prophet just could not accept the divinity of Christ, born of a virgin (Mary), and fathered by God.  In the Quran the three are depicted instead as father. son and mother, or God, Jesus and Mary. God to him was one, monotheistic, and not three, polytheistic.  Yet the Quran does recognize Mary and the mother of Jesus and refers to Jesus as “Messiah.”  The Quran also refers to Allah with 99 appellations. Some say that is polytheistic thinking itself.

One other bit for background.  And I feel certain that Islamic leaders interpreted this to provide a firmer foundation and relationship to biblical history, from Deuteronomy (18:15-18), Moses speaking to a gathering, “The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from the midst of thee, of they brethren…and put my words in his mouth….” Yet Moses was speaking to his tribal group, whose progenitor was Isaac. And it would seem quite clear that “of thy brethren” refers to the Israelites, not Ishmaelites. 

In John’s Gospel (14-16) there is reference to a comforter/advocate to follow Christ (when he dies), often referred to as the “Paraclete.”  But that is the spirit of God that fills the soul of a believer, God’s/Christ’s presence felt, of the Holy Spirit. There are Muslim scholars that link it to “Ahmad” (See Quran 7:157 and 61:6) suggesting the text is corrupted from “periklytos” (praised one), a theological interpretation.  I do not believe it is factual.  Where “Ahmad” is mentioned Islamists say it refers to Muhammad.  I speculate Waraqah would have discussed the old testament paragraph with Muhammad who then related it to himself, with a possibility of the New Testament comment, but that from recall, not study. 

In Mecca Muhammad protested the polytheistic and pagan practices of those who visited.  He disrupted business and was abused.   When he left Mecca he was welcomed by Jewish tribal leaders in Yatrib (Medina) as a unifier, an individual that could settle differences with local tribes. During Muhammad’s residence in Medina alliances were formed. Freedom to practice what they believed was an objective between Jews, Muslims and pagan tribes.  Relations became strained in Medina too, as Muhammad’s habits were anathema to the Jews.  He eventually turned on the Jews too. The Banu Qaynuqa and Nadir tribes were expelled after accusations of siding with the people of Mecca and breaking the alliance, accusations of treason during wars with Mecca (where Muhammad and his band of brothers were the aggressors). The Qurayza tribe, actually convicted of alleged treason (by Muhammad’s judges) faced severe punishment (Battle of the Trench) and execution. By the time of Muhammad’s death the Jewish population in Arabia had significantly declined. 

When the prophet prayed, at first he faced Jerusalem acknowledging its influence. He may have expected the Jews to accept his claim to prophethood, influencing his choice. He later turned instead towards Mecca, the location where Ishmael was abandoned with whom the arabs associate. The structure honored in Jerusalem may have been the Holy Seplechre or Temple Mount grounds, in recognition of Abrahamic tradition, appealing possibly to Jews and Christians.  The honored place, referred to as the Qibla, became the Kaaba in Mecca, after Muhammad’s rejection by the Jewish tribes. Also it enabled Muhammad to assert a more distinct identity with his practice of religion, and , conceivably, the tie between Abraham and Ishmael.  Islamic scholarship describe the change as a divine command. 

When Muhammad was 42 he committed himself to his belief, which became Islam.  From 612 until his death in 632 he developed a large following as well as an army of marauders with the intention, also, to take vengeance on Mecca for the treatment he received there.  He succeeded and converted Mecca.

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Caliphs – After Muhammad

In the 200 years after Muhammad (period 600ce to 800ce), led by Caliphs, Islam grew and expanded. Islamic doctrine and conquests had a significant impact. Jews and Christians in the area were conquered and allowed to live if useful or paid a tax for protection and their ability to continue with their religion. Wherever there were Jews, Christians, Bedouins, or other pagans, those not Muhhamadians, the Caliphs viewed them as sencond class citizens, to be subjects once overtaken. Under the first four Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali) territory from the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) empires were conquered, including the Levant, Egypt and Iraq.

A 26 year war (602-628) devastated the superpowers and the military strength of the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires, opening the way for Arab armies to succeed. In addition pre-Islamic Christian (Ghassanid) establishments in Syria and Persia (Lakhmids – Nestorian Christians) became weak, collapsed, and were unprepared for incursions from the south, or the Muhammad remnant armies led by the Caliphs. When Muhammad died a rebellion occurred as Arab tribes tried to assert themselves. The 1st Caliph, Abu Bakr, brought this rebellion under control not permitting Apostasy (Leaving the brotherhood of Muhammad). Referred to as the Ridda Wars (632-633). Abu Bakr unified the Peninsula and coalesced the military might under his command. Significant battles against the Byzantine forces (Yarmouk (636 CE) and al-Qadisiyyah (636–637 CE, against Sassanids) made clear the might of the Muhammadean army, enthused its constituents, and encouraged them towards further conquests.

Within 100 years the Islamic aggression crossed northern Africa into Spain.  Surrender agreements at times mitigated massive violence.  Books were burned, libraries destroyed. Christians in Jerusalem, when taken by Umar, surrendered peacefully. Paying a jizya for protection subsequently. “Dhimmi” status was accorded “People of the Book” (from the Quran); required to pay the tax and acknowledge Muslim authority (and laws, established on the go by the Caliph at the time). Neither new churches nor synagogues were allowed, repairs only, distinctive clothing was required, no public displays of the alternative faiths, and no proselytizing allowed. Non-Muslims had to make way for Muslims to pass, i.e. priority on the road.  Even though Muslims were a minority, and often placed Christians and Jews in important positions of administration, they were the authoritarians in command. It was not until the 9th and 10th Centuries that Muslims reached a majority status.

The period 632-661ce is referred to as the Rashidun Caliphate.

The Umayyad Caliphate ruled from Damascus after 661ce until 750, followed by the Early Abbasid Period (until 800ce). Islam was expanded into Spain and Central Asia, with Dhimmi’s in the majority but subject to Islamic rule in many areas. Dhimmi’s faced social and legal inferiority, high taxes, testimonial restrictions in court, and discriminatory enforcement.  Immunity for Muslims and not for others. Social incentives led to Islamic conversions.  Demographics shifted slowly towards Islam until it dominated in many locations. 

In 732ce (Battle of Tours) the Muslim army was defeated trying to enter Europe (through France). The Muslims at that time ruled Spain, and continued to do so after defeat at the European border. It was the event that stopped the Muslim conquest of Christian Europe. 

To summarize: Islam began spreading from Arabia starting in 622 CE (the Hijra). Under the Rashidun Caliphs (632–661 CE), conquests reached Syria, Iraq, Egypt, and Persia. The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE) extended this further into North Africa, Spain (Al-Andalus), and Central Asia, reaching its territorial peak around 750 CE just before the Abbasid Revolution. 

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Opinion/Golden Age/After 800ce

My view sees Islam as aggressive, conquerers, and focused on changing the world using fear and military tactics.  What is the appeal when constrained in what you can learn, and required to be obedient, subservient to your leaders, without question.  Is the appeal monotheism or social justice or unity?  Seeking a one world order, applying logic, is impossible.  Yet a religion of so-called peace, one would imagine, would allow for Christians, Jews, and secularists to live among them freely, and without being subject to a required tax. There would be a realization also that not all minds think alike, and never will.  

There is an important era of Islam, the Golden Age of Islam, during the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1158) when scholarship and reason prevailed.  Rationalism waned thereafter as orthodoxy prevailed.  Literature found during conquests was translated into the common language, not by the Muslims, but by the overtaken Christian and Jewish scholars. That practice began to wane once Muslims attained a majority. More about this period in a future Post. 

After the year 800, the aggression continued. There was upheaval and growth, the Crusades, the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, and growth of the turks. The Abbasid Caliphate initially maintained influence but gradually lost direct control to regional dynasties (e.g., Fatimids in North Africa/Egypt, Seljuks in the Middle East/Anatolia, Almohads/Almoravids in North Africa and Spain). By 1200–1300 CE, the Islamic world was politically divided, though culturally connected, with further disruptions from the Crusades and Mongol invasions. Territories remained extensive but decentralized until the rise of the Ottomans. The Ottoman Empire was formed and reigned for centuries (1299-1922, 623 years).  There were developing schools of Islamic thinking and jurisprudence, but what we see today, from the fundamentalists, is a return to the years of Islam’s beginnings. 

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Map

This map illustrates the rise and rapid expansion of Islam from the time of the Prophet Muhammad (622–632 CE) through the great caliphates of the 7th to 9th centuries. 

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For More ….

More can be learned about Islam on this site.  Go to the upper right hand corner, press on the “…” and on the second page you can search the site for more.  

by

Thomas W. Balderston

Author and Blogger

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